biwa instrument classificationeiaculare dopo scleroembolizzazione varicocele

Among the major variants are the gakubiwa (used in court music), the msbiwa (used by Buddhist monks for the chanting of sutras), the heikebiwa (used to chant stories from the Heike monogatori), the chikuzenbiwa (used for an amalgam of narrative types), and the satsumabiwa (used for samurai narratives). The biwa is a pear-shaped instrument with four or five strings. The body is narrower and smaller than the other types of biwa. The biwa may be used to accompany various types of narrative, as part of a gagaku (court music) ensemble, or as a solo instrument. However, false nails made of horn existed as early as the Ming period when finger-picking became the popular technique for playing pipa.[24]. The musical narrative of The Tale of Heike, in The Ashgate Research Companion to Japanese Music, edited by Alison McQueen Tokita and David W. Hughes. Note however that the frets on all Chinese lutes are high so that the fingers and strings never touch the fingerboard in between the frets, this is different from many Western fretted instruments and allows for dramatic vibrato and other pitch changing effects. The biwa's Chinese predecessor was the pipa (), which arrived in Japan in two forms;[further explanation needed] following its introduction to Japan, varieties of the biwa quadrupled. In the present day, there are no direct means of studying the biwa in many biwa traditions. to the present. However, following the collapse of the Ritsury state, biwa hshi employed at the court were faced with the court's reconstruction and sought asylum in Buddhist temples. The biwas sound at the attack (top) at one second later (bottom). In the early 20th century, twenty-five pieces were found amongst 10th-century manuscripts in the Mogao caves near Dunhuang, most of these pieces however may have originated from the Tang dynasty. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. The flowers fluttered, and from Heaven the phoenix trilled, On the plectrum, figure of a golden phoenix with flowers in its beak, There are three small soundholes on the soundboard: two visible ones (hangetsu) partially covered with moon-shaped caps made of ivory and a hidden one (ingetsu) beneath the string holder. Typically 60 centimetres (24 in) to 106 centimetres (42 in) in length, the instrument is . Japanese Music and Musical Instruments. Tataku: This is similar to hazusu, except that this time, two non-struck pitches follow the struck one. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Company. 5.5 in. The strings are numbered from the lowest (first string) to the highest (fourth string). This is due to the fact that the space between the strings on the first three frets is so short that a fingered 1st fret on the 3rd string, for example, would damp the following 4th string, as shown on Figure 7. This category only includes cookies that ensures basic functionalities and security features of the website. Clattering and murmuring, meshing jumbled sounds, 4. [49] In Nanguan music, the pipa is still held in the near-horizontal position or guitar-fashion in the ancient manner instead of the vertical position normally used for solo playing in the present day. 38.5 in. [42] During the Qing dynasty there originally two major schools of pipathe Northern and Southern schools, and music scores for these two traditions were collected and published in the first mass-produced edition of solo pieces for pipa, now commonly known as the Hua Collection (). In this case, the left hand fourth finger taps the string so that the un-attacked pitch or pitches can be somewhat heard. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/500681, Mary Elizabeth Adams Brown ; James L. Amerman, The Met Collection API is where all makers, creators, researchers, and dreamers can now connect to the most up-to-date data and images for more than 470,000 artworks in The Met collection. [citation needed], In 2014, an industrial designer residing in the United States Xi Zheng () designed and crafted an electric pipa "E-pa" in New York. The Museum looks forward to receiving your comments. This singing style is complemented by the biwa, which biwa players use to produce short glissandi throughout the performance. For the left hand, as mentioned above under the Construction section, bending of the strings (oshikan, ) and delicate control of it to create a vibrato effect (yuri. ) During the war time in early 20th century, biwa music was easily adapted to the nationalism of Imperial Japan, and many songs that emphasized the virtue of loyalty and sacrifice for the country were created and widely played. Idiophones African Thumb Pianos Most contemporary performers use the five string version. Over the centuries, several types of biwa were created, each having a certain size plectrum, a specialized purpose, a unique performance technique, and varying numbers of strings and frets. Further, the frets and the nut are wide, which provides a surface, not a point, for a string to touch. Because of this bending technique oshikan (. The biwa is a plucked lute chordophone of Japan. greatest width of resonator A player holds it horizontally, and mostly plays rhythmic arpeggios in orchestra or ensemble. [44] The first volume contains 13 pieces from the Northern school, the second and third volumes contain 54 pieces from the Southern school. By the Song dynasty, the word pipa was used to refer exclusively to the four-stringed pear-shaped instrument. [34][57][58] Duan Anjie described the duel between the famous pipa player Kang Kunlun and the monk Duan Shanben () who was disguised as a girl, and told the story of Yang Zhi () who learned how to play the pipa secretly by listening to his aunt playing at night. This music was cherished and protected by the authorities and particularly flourished in the 14th-15th centuries. Other early known players of pipa include General Xie Shang from the Jin dynasty who was described to have performed it with his leg raised. This causes a sustained, buzzing noise called sawari () which adds a unique flavor to the biwa sound. Two basic types of wood are used to make stringed musical instruments: woods for soundboards (top plates) and those for frame boards (back and side plates). We'll assume you're ok with this, but you can opt-out if you wish. What is the hornbostelsachs classification of biwa instrument - 9005546 Several types of biwa, each with its own social setting and repertoire, have evolved in Japan over the past 1300 years, the specimens pictured here being called most accurately the chikuzen biwa. Due to the slow growth of the Japanese mulberry, the wood must be taken from a tree at least 120 years old and dried for 10 years before construction can begin. Any cookies that may not be particularly necessary for the website to function and is used specifically to collect user personal data via analytics, ads, other embedded contents are termed as non-necessary cookies. ________. Credit Line: The Crosby Brown Collection . However, another variant of the biwa known as the ms-biwa or the kjin-biwa also found its way to Japan, first appearing in the Kyushu region. Biwa (Japanese instrument) - MIT Global Shakespeares Biwa (Japanese instrument) The Biwa is a Japanese teardrop lute, similar to the lute and the oud, with a short neck and frets. The peg box is angled about 90 degrees from the neck, and the back of the body is flat, unlike the western lute. Hazusu: This is a sequence of two pitches, where the first one is attacked, and leades to a second one which is not attacked. Due to rights restrictions, this image cannot be enlarged, viewed at full screen, or downloaded. [27] The traditional 16-fret pipa became less common, although it is still used in some regional styles such as the pipa in the southern genre of nanguan/nanyin. 5. With the abolition of Todo in the Meiji period, biwa players lost their patronage. Its boxwood plectrum is much wider than others, often reaching widths of 25cm (9.8in) or more. In the Meiji period (1868-1912), sighted musicians created new styles of secular biwa narrative singing inspired by Kyushu ms traditions and introduced them to Tokyo. The satsuma-biwa (), a biwa with four strings and four frets, was popularized during the Edo period in Satsuma Province (present-day Kagoshima) by Shimazu Tadayoshi. Jiaju Shen from The Either also plays an Electric 5 String Pipa/Guitar hybrid that has the Hardware from an Electric Guitar combined with the Pipa, built by an instrument maker named Tim Sway called "Electric Pipa 2.0". Heike-biwa is an accompaniment instrument specifically used to chant the Tale of Heike stories () in the traditional way dating from the medieval era. Nation: Japan. It is an important instrument in the Peking opera orchestra, often taking the role of main melodic instrument in lieu of the bowed string section. This type of biwa, known as the gaku-biwa, was later used in gagaku ensembles and became the most commonly known type. Finally, measure 5 shows a rare instance where a melodic tone (F# in this case) is doubled on the second beat of the biwa's pattern. [12] The plectrum is also critical to creating the sawari sound, which is particularly utilized with satsuma-biwa. It has the largest body and relatively short neck among biwas. The pipa pieces in the common repertoire can be categorized as wen (, civil) or wu (, martial), and da (, large or suite) or xiao (, small). Other prominent students of Lin Shicheng at the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing include Liu Guilian (, born 1961), Gao Hong and Wu Man. There are more than seven types of biwa, characterised by number of strings, sounds it could produce, the type of plectrum, and their use. [24] However, it continued to be played as a folk instrument that also gained the interest of the literati. 2. [24], In the subsequent periods, the number of frets gradually increased,[26] from around 10 to 14 or 16 during the Qing dynasty, then to 19, 24, 29, and 30 in the 20th century. For example, a piece like "The Warlord Takes off His Armour" is made up of many sections, some of them metered and some with free meter, and greater freedom in interpretation is possible in the free meter sections. [citation needed]. With turned wrist, he gathered the strings to pluck and strum faster. The texture of biwa singing is often described as "sparse". The interval between the pitches of the open string and first fret is a major second, while the interval between pitches on two adjacent frets is a minor second. The open strings are shown in the first measures, and the pitches assigned the left-hand fingered notes in the following four measures. Like the heike-biwa, it is played held on its side, similar to a guitar, with the player sitting cross-legged. [14], Biwa usage in Japan has declined greatly since the Heian period. While the modern satsuma-biwa and chikuzen-biwa both originated from the ms-biwa, the satsuma-biwa was used for moral and mental training by samurai of the Satsuma Domain during the Warring States period, and later for general performances. February 20, 2008. In the beginning of the Taish period (19121926), the satsuma-biwa was modified into the nishiki-biwa, which became popular among female players at the time. They recorded the critically acclaimed CD "Eagle Seizing Swan" together. The instrument is plucked with a pick made out of animal horn. Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. The biwa is a plucked string instrument that first gained popularity in China before spreading throughout East Asia, eventually reaching Japan sometime during the Nara period (710-794). This article is about the Chinese instrument. [40] Through time, the neck was raised and by the Qing dynasty the instrument was mostly played upright. Sandstone carving, showing the typical way a pipa was held when played with plectrum in the early period. It is made out of wood, with a teardrop-shaped body and a long neck with four or five high frets, and is stringed with four or five silk strings that are plucked by a big pick called bachi. 105-126. length Thick strings clatter like splattering rain, Modern biwa music is based on that medieval narrative biwa music. She lives in San Diego, California and works extensively with Chinese, cross-cultural, new music, and jazz groups. Traditionally, the duration of each pitch subdivides the measure into two equal durations. Few pieces for pipa survived from the early periods, some, however, are preserved in Japan as part of togaku (Tang music) tradition. [16], While many styles of biwa flourished in the early 1900s (such as kindai-biwa between 1900 and the 1930s), the cycle of tutelage was broken yet again by the war. The body of the instrument is never struck with the plectrum during play, and the five string instrument is played upright, while the four string is played held on its side. Players from the Wang and Pudong schools were the most active in performance and recording during the 20th century, less active was the Pinghu school whose players include Fan Boyan (). It is a lute with a round, hollow soundboard, a short fretted neck, and usually four strings. Biwa Four frets Figure 1 NAKAMURA Kahoru Biwa's back is flat Biwa's plectrum Figure 2 Although shaped like a Western lute, the Biwa 's back is flat and it has a shallower body. For other uses, see, Illustrations from the 15th century Korean work, Xiansuo Shisan Tao (, later incorporated into Complete String Music ), Note that some people claimed Pei Xingnu to be the female player described in the poem, History of lute-family instruments Short-necked lutes, "The pipa: How a barbarian lute became a national symbol", "Avaye Shayda - Kishibe's diffusionism theory on the Iranian Barbat and Chino-Japanese Pi' Pa', "Chapter 1: A General history of the Pipa", "Bracket with two musicians 100s, Pakistan, Gandhara, probably Butkara in Swat, Kushan Period (1st century-320)", The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'ang Exotics, "Pipa - A Chinese lute or guitar, its brief history, photos and music samples", A report on Chinese research into the Dunhuang music manuscripts, "Chapter 3 Musical structure in the Hua Collection", "Comparison of Three Chinese Traditional Pipa Music Schools with the Aid of Sound Analysis", "Lui Pui-yuen, master of Chinese music, returns to perform once again", "Incubus - Mike Einziger Guitar Gear Rig and Equipment", "[search page, albums featuring Yang Jing]", "La scne musicale alternative pkinoise vue par Jean Sbastien Hry (Djang San)", "BC GRIMM Experimental Acoustic-Electric Music EPK", "Experimental Electric Pipa - , by Zhang Si'an (Djang San )", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pipa&oldid=1138787889, Articles with dead external links from January 2018, Articles with permanently dead external links, Articles containing Chinese-language text, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2019, Articles with MusicBrainz instrument identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Flute and Drum at Sunset / Flowery Moonlit River in Spring, This page was last edited on 11 February 2023, at 16:35. In all biwa styles, except for Gaku-biwa (, please refer to the section Types of Biwa), fingers are positioned between the frets, not on the frets. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. In the 20th century, two of the most prominent pipa players were Sun Yude (; 19041981) and Li Tingsong (; 19061976). The Koto came from the Chinese zither "Gu Zheng" during the Nara period in Japan. greatest depth of resonator, multiple (by pressure stopping against fretted fingerboard). While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. https://japanese-music.com/profile/nobuko-fukatsu/. Influenced by the shamisen, its music is rather soft, attracting more female players. Typically, the lowest notes of the arpeggios are open strings, while the highest ones can either be fingered pitches or an open string. The artist Yang Jing plays pipa with a variety of groups. Public domain data for this object can also be accessed using the Met's Open Access API. These cookies do not store any personal information. Different sized plectrums produced different textures; for example, the plectrum used on a ms-biwa was much larger than that used on a gaku-biwa, producing a harsher, more vigorous sound. Sort by. A pipa player playing with the pipa behind his back. This is the original form of biwa that came to Japan in the 8th century. In addition, there are a number of techniques that produce sound effects rather than musical notes, for example, striking the board of the pipa for a percussive sound, or strings-twisting while playing that produces a cymbal-like effect. The 4-string chikuzen biwa (gallery #1) is constructed in several parts and needs to be assembled and strung before being played. The plectrum also contributes to the texture of biwa music. The biwa is a plucked lute chordophone of Japan. Since the revolutions in Chinese instrument-making during the 20thcentury, the softer twisted silk strings of earlier times have been exchanged for nylon-wound steel strings, which are far too strong for human fingernails, so false nails are now used, constructed of plastic or tortoise-shell, and affixed to the fingertips with the player's choice of elastic tape. The strings are depressed not directly against the frets, but between them, and by controlling the amount of applied pressure the performer can achieve a range of pitches and pitch inflections. [3] From roughly the Meiji period (18681912) until the Pacific War, the satsuma-biwa and chikuzen-biwa were popular across Japan, and, at the beginning of the Shwa period (19251989), the nishiki-biwa was created and gained popularity. The biwa's twangy plucks were most commonly accompanied by a single voice during court performances, but its popularity spread the instrument made its way into religious sermons and oral history . Out of these cookies, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are as essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. The archlute ( Spanish: archilad, Italian: arciliuto, German: Erzlaute) is a European plucked string instrument developed around 1600 as a compromise between the very large theorbo, the size and re-entrant tuning of which made for difficulties in the performance of solo music, and the Renaissance tenor lute, which lacked the bass range of the New York, 1903, vol. Check your inbox or spam folder to confirm your subscription. In 1868, the Tokugawa shogunate collapsed, giving way to the Meiji period and the Meiji Restoration, during which the samurai class was abolished, and the Todo lost their patronage. During the 1950s, the use of metal strings in place of the traditional silk ones also resulted in a change in the sound of the pipa which became brighter and stronger. So the previously mentioned tuning can be tuned down to B, F, B, c, d. Asahikai and Tachibanakai are the two major schools of chikuzen-biwa. [45] Other collections from the Qing dynasty were compiled by Li Fangyuan () and Ju Shilin (), each representing different schools, and many of the pieces currently popular were described in these Qing collections. The performers left hand is used both to steady the instrument, with the thumb hooked around the backside of the neck, and to depress the strings, the index finger doing most of the work but sometimes aided by the middle finger. General tones and pitches can fluctuate up or down entire steps or microtones. Players hold the instrument vertically. Its tuning is A, c, e, a or A, c-sharp, e, a. What is known is that three main streams of biwa practice emerged during this time: zato (the lowest level of the state-controlled guild of blind biwa players), shifu (samurai style), and chofu (urban style). The fourth and fifth strings, if 5-stringed, are tuned to the same note. Influenced by the recitations of blind priests, the music of the heike biwa reflects the mood of the text. In the late 20th century, largely through the efforts of Wu Man (in USA), Min Xiao-Fen (in USA), composer Yang Jing (in Europe) and other performers, Chinese and Western contemporary composers began to create new works for the pipa (both solo and in combination with chamber ensembles and orchestra). The nishiki-biwa (), a modern biwa with five strings and five frets, was popularised by the 20th-century biwa player and composer Suit Kinj (, 19111973). The gagaku biwa (), a large and heavy biwa with four strings and four frets, is used exclusively for gagaku. In 1956, after working for some years in Shanghai, Lin accepted a position at the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. Today, the instrument is played in both narrative and instrumental formats, in the traditional music scene as well as in various popular media. Ieyasu favored biwa music and became a major patron, helping to strengthen biwa guilds (called Todo) by financing them and allowing them special privileges. 1984. [17][14] Starting about the 10th century, players began to hold the instrument "more upright", as the fingernail style became more important. In the 13th century, the story The Tale of Heike ()was created and told by them. [1][2] Modern researchers such as Laurence Picken, Shigeo Kishibe, and John Myers suggested a non-Chinese origin. Each type has different and unique tones, techniques, and musical styles. As well as being one of the leading pipa players of his generation, Li held many academic positions and also carried out research on pipa scales and temperament. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. 11.7 in. Another excerpt of figurative descriptions of a pipa music may be found in a eulogy for a pipa player, Lament for Shancai by Li Shen:[33]. [19], Other musicians, such as Yamashika Yoshiyuki, considered by most ethnomusicologists to be the last of the biwa hshi, preserved scores of songs that were almost lost forever. We speculate that being half-way in the section, the purpose of this clash may be to avoid a too strong feeling of cadence on the 'tonic E,' since there is one more phrase to come before completing this section. [17][18] The pear-shaped pipa may have been introduced during the Han dynasty and was referred to as Han pipa. This scale sometimes includes supplementary notes, but the core remains pentatonic. In the performers right hand the bachi (plectrum) is held, its upward-pointing tip used to pluck the strings near the string holder. It is an instrument in China, its mouth-blown free reed instrument consisting of vertical pipes. The traditional Satsuma-biwa has 4 strings and 4 frets (Sei-ha and Kinshin-ryu schools), and newer styles have 5 strings and 5 frets (Nishiki and Tsuruta-ryu schools). The pipa is held in a vertical or near-vertical position during performance, although in the early periods the instrument was held in the horizontal position or near-horizontal with the neck pointing slightly downwards, or upside down. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. [8] The varying string thickness creates different timbres when stroked from different directions. Koto 3. This website uses cookies to improve your experience. Through the next several centuries, players of both traditions intersected frequently and developed new music styles and new instruments. The biwa (Japanese: ) is a Japanese short-necked wooden lute traditionally used in narrative storytelling. Among ethnomusicologists, it is the most widely used system for classifying musical instruments. The biwa became known as an instrument commonly played at the Japanese Imperial court, where biwa players, known as biwa hshi, found employment and patronage. The biwa has a shallow, rounded back and silk strings (usually four or five) attached to slender lateral pegs. The main part of the music is vocal and the biwa part mostly plays short interludes. These two modern styles came to Tokyo with the local reformists who led the Meiji Restoration, and became the center of the contemporary music scene in the late 19th to early 20th century. It is similar in shape to the chikuzen-biwa, but with a much more narrow body. [31] The pipa is mentioned frequently in the Tang dynasty poetry, where it is often praised for its expressiveness, refinement and delicacy of tone, with poems dedicated to well-known players describing their performances. [17] Even higo-biwa players, who were quite popular in the early 20th century, may no longer have a direct means of studying oral composition, as the bearers of the tradition have either died or are no longer able to play. The biwa (Japanese: ) is a Japanese short-necked wooden lute traditionally used in narrative storytelling. The chikuzen-biwa was used by Buddhist monks visiting private residences to perform memorial services, not only for Buddhist rites, but also to accompany the telling of stories and news. They included Ouyang Xiu, Wang Anshi, and Su Shi. Noted contemporary pipa players who work internationally include Min Xiao-Fen, Yang Jin(), Zhou Yi, Qiu Xia He, Liu Fang, Cheng Yu, Jie Ma, Yang Jing(, Yang Wei (),[64] Guan Yadong (), Jiang Ting (), Tang Liangxing (),[65] and Lui Pui-Yuen (, brother of Lui Tsun-Yuen). The typical 5-stringed Satsuma-biwa classical tuning is: CGCG, from first string to fourth/fifth string, respectively. As a result, younger musicians turned to other instruments and interest in biwa music decreased. Upon its arrival, the biwa was used in purely instrumental music in the court culture the instrument appears in various works of literature and art in the 10th -12th centuries, depicting nobles enjoying it in rituals as well as in their private lives. Reflecting its history as an instrument for samurai, its music is often described as dynamic and heroic. It always starts from the 4th string and stops on either the 3rd, 2nd, or 1st string depending if the arpeggio contains 2, 3, or 4 pitches, respectively. Tachibana sought to create a new narrative style that would appeal to a contemporary urban audience (de Ferranti p. 120) and that would be performed by sighted musicians. The wu style was associated more with the Northern school while the wen style was more the Southern school. Pei Luoer was known for pioneering finger-playing techniques,[25] while Sujiva was noted for the "Seven modes and seven tones", a musical modal theory from India. The fish is an auspicious symbol of Buddhism signifying wakeful attention since most fish lack eyelids and remain alert. Taiko Related Articles on Traditional Japanese Instruments 1. It had close association with Buddhism and often appeared in mural and sculptural representations of musicians in Buddhist contexts. After almost dying out post-World War II, the tradition was revived in part due to interest shown in the instrument by the internationally known contemporary composer Tru Takemitsu, who wrote instrumental compositions for the instrument. Biwa traditions began with blind priests who traveled from village to village singing sutras. Options are limited when considering that a fingered string between two open strings must be fingered on the 4th fret to avoid damping. Gao Hong graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music and was the first to do a joint tour with Lin Shicheng in North America. The sole stroke motion used in this example is kakubachi, but it also includes examples of hazusu and tataku. Because of this bending technique oshikan (), one can make two or three notes for each fret and also in-between notes. Public domain data for this object can also be accessed using the Met's Open Access API. From the Dingjiazha Tomb No. The instrument is also held vertically while playing. After having arrived in Japan via the Silk Road for purely instrumental music, the biwa evolved over time into a narrative musical instrument. The biwa sounds as written, and it is tuned to an A-430Hz. Each type has different and unique tones, techniques, and musical styles. Figure 5 shows examples of harmonic structures of, 2, 3, and 4 pitches in Ichikotsu-ch. [3][4][5], The earliest mention of pipa in Chinese texts appeared late in the Han dynasty around the 2nd century AD. He also qualified as a doctor of Chinese medicine. The most basic technique, tantiao (), involves just the index finger and thumb (tan is striking with the index finger, tiao with the thumb). Figure 4 introduces the biwas six traditional tunings. Typically, the lower strings of the arpeggio are open, as indicated with the '0' in Example 4, while the last string hit may either be open or fingered (numbers 1 to 4 refers to the left hand's fingers from the index to the 4th finger, respectively). Famous pieces such as "Ambushed from Ten Sides", "The Warlord Takes Off His Armour", and "Flute and Drum at Sunset" were first described in this collection. [56], Texts from Tang dynasty mentioned many renowned pipa players such as He Huaizhi (), Lei Haiqing (), Li Guaner (), and Pei Xingnu (). But opting out of some of these cookies may have an effect on your browsing experience. It is a big percussion instrument of Japanese that plays integral part of many Japanese Matsuri (festival). From these styles also emerged the two principal survivors of the biwa tradition: satsuma-biwa and chikuzen-biwa. (92.7 20 12.7 cm), The Crosby Brown Collection of Musical Instruments, 1889. Pipa has been played solo, or as part of a large ensemble or small group since the early times. Multiple strings are often played in one pluck like an arpeggio. The scores were written in tablature form with no information on tuning given, there are therefore uncertainties in the reconstruction of the music as well as deciphering other symbols in the score.

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