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When the South Fork Dam Broke, a Pennsylvania City Washed Away. Excursions Those who did see it said it snapped off trees like pipe stems, crushed houses like eggshells, and threw around locomotives like so much chaff. A violent wind preceded it, blowing down small buildings. Before the club bought it, the unnamed reservoir was part of Pennsylvanias canal system. As everyone had dreaded, disease followed in the wake of the flood, and typhoid added 40 more lives to the 2,209 that had already died. ASDSO Annual Conference. . Central Pennsylvania, May 31, 1889: After a deluge of rainnearly a foot in less than twenty-four hoursswelled the Little Conemaugh River, panicked engineers watched helplessly as swiftly rising waters threatened to breach the South Fork dam, built to create a private lake for a fishing and hunting club that counted among its members . [2] A torrent of water raced downstream, destroying several towns. It was abandoned by the commonwealth, sold to the Pennsylvania Railroad, and sold again to private interests.. Located some 14 miles east of Johnstown at a point where the South Fork branch of the Little Conemaugh River and several mountain streams converged, the dam created what was, at the time, one of the largest artificial lakes in the nation, more than two miles long and nearly a mile wide in some places. "Executive Communications (P. Daniel Smith), United States Congress, Senate Government Printing Office, 1954, pages 4-5. The South Fork Dam, as it became known, experienced a catastrophic failure on May 31, 1889 when it was overtopped during a large storm event. Just 40 minutes later the Lake was empty; all the water had escaped through the broken dam. Those caught by the wave found themselves swept up in a torrent of oily, yellow-brown water, surrounded by tons of grinding debris, which crushed some and provided rafts for others. How was his response different? Major Historical Dam Failures with Modes of Failure. . Torrents of water rushed downstream as the dam failed, inundating nearby Johnstown with 16 million tons of water and wiping out much of the town. The South Fork Dam was built to provide water for the operation of the Western Division of the Pennsylvania Mainline Canal between Johnstown and Pittsburgh. The South Fork Dam was built between 1838 and 1853 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania to provide water for the operation of the Western Division of the Pennsylvania Mainline Canal between Johnstown and Pittsburgh. Nobody, it seemed, was willing to challenge Americas most powerful men. 1853-South Fork Dam and Western Reservoir deemed ready for operation. 1842-1851-For many reasons, work was stopped and the dam was only half-completed; later studies by civil engineers concluded that this work stoppage caused damages to the South Fork Dam that led, in part, to its failure on May 31, 1889. View more property details, sales history and Zestimate data on Zillow. Left image The average depth is 30 to 35 feet. Despite the evidence to suggest that they were very much to blame, the Club membership was never held legally responsible for the disaster. When the South Fork Dam burst on May 31, 1889, the population of Johnstown had already spent their day dealing with floodwaters. Represents a district that is made up of a large portion of eastern Nevada, including parts of Elko, Eureka, and Nye counties, and all of Lincoln and White Pine counties. People were sucked from buildings and tossed into a raging torrent. Figures 4.2 (Chap. 2023 BygonelyPrivacy policyTerms of ServiceContact us. SO he can make the road on the dam wider for his carriage to cross. [3], Daniel Johnson Morrell became a member of the club for the purpose of observing the state of the dam under its stewardship, and campaigned to club officials, especially to Ruff, its founder, regarding the safety of the dam. 3. 1857-Pennsylvania Railroad bought the entire route of the Pennsylvania Main Line Canal, including the South Fork Dam. Thedam was approximately 72 feet high, 918 feet long, 10 feet wide at its crest, and220 feet wide at its base. [1] The district includes eight contributing buildings remaining from the club. The repairs and alterations to the South Fork Dam led to many issues related tothe structures ability to pass a significant storm event. Lower Johnstown three days after the flood. Technical paper published by Association of State Dam Safety Officials, Newspaper article published by the Tribune-Democrat, Author: H. Unrau, U.S. National Park Service, Presentation at Oregon Dam Safety Conference, Author: N. Coleman, U. Kaktins, & S. Wojno. On February 5, 1904, the Cambria Freeman reported, under the headline "Will Pass Out of History": The South Fork Hunting and Fishing Club, owners of the Conemaugh Reservoir at the time of the Great Flood, will soon pass out of history as an organization with the sale of all its personal effects remaining in the clubhouse at the reservoir site. Debris at the stone bridge covered 30 acres, and clean-up operations were to continue for years. Nephew of, James H. Willock cashier of the Second National Bank, William K. Woodwell associated with Joseph R. Woodwell and company, H. C. Yeager dry goods and trimming wholesaler through C. Yeager and Company, This page was last edited on 10 September 2022, at 20:32. 3768 Arctic Fox Dr , Island Park, ID 83429 is a single-family home listed for-sale at $1,100,000. 1. Relief efforts at the Masonic headquarters. Original construction included both adult and juvenile fish passage facilities to help move fish past the dam. The South Fork Dam in Pennsylvania collapses on May 31, 1889, causing the Johnstown Flood, killing more than 2,200 people. Additionally, a previous owner had removed and sold for scrap the three cast iron discharge pipes that previously allowed a controlled release of water. This included the South Fork Dam, which was built just north of Johnstown in 1852. Originally built by the Commonwealth to service a canal system, the dam was abandoned when railroads superseded canals and was sold to private interests. The resulting flood wave that contained 20 million tons of water and debris caused 2,209 fatalities and became known as the "Johnstown Flood". One third of the dead were never identified and their remains were buried in in the Plot of the Unknown in Grandview Cemetery in Westmont. Over 2,200 people - more than one in five residents of Johnstown - perished in the flood caused by the failure of South Fork Dam, nine miles upstream. ( 1891 p 446) claim the dam was lowered 2 ft. and report a mean height of 7.96 ft. (2.43 m) above the spillway floor for eight points on the crest of . They determined that contrary to the clubs claims, the dam had been lowered by three feet, not one, and that the changes reduced the dams ability to discharge stormwater by half. The total death toll was calculated originally as 2,209 people, making the disaster the largest loss of civilian life in the United States at the time. Thats changed in modern years as scientists and historians work to reconstruct what happened during the fateful flood. Erin Blakemore is an award-winning journalist who lives and works in Boulder, Colorado. A primary and secondary spillway regulates overflow. More recently, the Malplasset concrete arch dam in France failed on December 2, 1959, when the . . In 57 minutes the wave would engulf the town. Hours: Open seven days a week, 365 days a year. February 11, 1881; "Report of the Committee on the Cause of the Failure of the South Fork Dam", loc. ft. 438 Lookout Dam Rd, Statesville, NC 28625 $449,900 MLS# 3892981 New construction home to be finished approx. In 1879 a group of wealthy Pittsburgh industrialists, including such men as Andrew Carnegie and Andrew Mellon, formed the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club and bought the dam and the reservoiras an exclusive and somewhat secret summer resort. It was also hypothesized during the investigation ofthe failure that had the spillway been constructed according to the originallydesigned size, the dam would likely have not been overtopped and the worstman-made disaster in the United States prior to September 11, 2001 would havebeen avoided. Why did they fail to evacuate, even after the warning came?, Describe the damage caused by the Johns-town Flood., In response to the flood, Carnegie reacted differently than other South Fork members. WATCH: Full episodes of 'I Was There' online now. The water took its natural course, dropping 450 feet in 14 miles, at times 70 to 75 feet high, and reaching speeds of 40 miles per hour. 1875-Pennsylvania Railroad employee and US Congressman John Reilly, bought the South Fork Dam for $2,500.00. Once it came into the hands of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, they modified it to their recreational interests. Because the growing city had increased the runoff from the surrounding hills by stripping them for wood and had narrowed the river banks to gain building space, the heavy annual rains had caused increased flooding in recent years. 1863-Canal between Johnstown and Blairsville was closed meaning there was no longer a viable reason to maintain the South Fork Dam. The South Fork Dam when it was completed by the state of Pennsylvania for the canal system. Our aging dams weren't built to survive today's extreme weather. Compiled and edited by Kathy Weiser-Alexander, updated October 2019. 2. As the dam burst, a 30- to-40-foot-high wave rushed the 14 miles toward Johnstown. As rescuers worked in the dark to free people, the flames spread over the whole mass, burning with all the fury of hell, according to a Johnstown newspaper account. They thought the dam's location was a prime spot for a private resort. Though the dam had been built according to accepted engineering practices, the canal system was obsolete by the time the dam was completed in 1853. (2)Rose, A. Major Historical Dam Failures with Modes of Failure. "Cyrus Elder (1833-1912), "Johnstown Flood", National Park Service. The dam was watertight due to puddled earth or being packed down. Mostly forgotten about by the 1870s-1880s, it was also a menace, over the heads of the people of Johnstown and the Conemaugh Valley. The South Fork Dam. Fallen buildings in the Johnston Flood in Pennsylvania. The Club inadequately patched the holes from the 1862 break; never replaced the sluice pipes; lowered the top of the dam to make it wider for carriages; and put fish screens over the spillway. With a volumetric flow rate that temporarily equaled the average flow rate of the Mississippi River, the flood killed more than 2,200 people. As a result of poor maintenance, the outlet works culvert collapsed and a portionof the dam washed out in 1862. 1852-June 10, the Western Reservoir was finally dammed. On May 31, 1889, South Fork Dam near Johnstown, Pennsylvania, . On a cool May afternoon in 1889, the residents of Johnstown heard a thunderous roar as a man-made disaster swept through town. That version of the dam partially failed just a decade after it had been completed. Dam and club history. Technical paper published by Elsevier Ltd. Lessons Learned From Dam Failures. It changed hands again in a sale to private investors. Built following the disastrous Johnstown flood of 1889, the Inclined Plane connected the downtown area with the far higher Westmont, which was being developed into a residential neighborhood. People stand atop houses after the flood May 31, 1889 (Source: The Washington Post) A bout a century and a half ago, the opening of the South Fork Dam was officially inaugurated in the American . USBR. The club owned a private, artificial lake where they gathered in a clubhouse and private cottages to mingle and enjoy the pleasures of nature. . The South Fork Dam was built between 1838 and 1853 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. The South Fork Dam was originally built between 18381853 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as part of the canal system to be used as a reservoir for the state's Main Line of Public Works canal basin in Johnstown. Central Pennsylvania, May 31, 1889: After a deluge of rainnearly a foot in less than twenty-four hoursswelled the Little Conemaugh River, panicked engineers watched helplessly as swiftly rising waters threatened to breach the South Fork dam, built to create a private lake for a fishing and hunting club that counted among its members . The Johnstown Flood would become one of the worst natural disasters ever seen in this country. The dam broke after several days of extremely heavy rainfall, releasing 14.55 million cubic meters of water. . Changes made to the dam during their ownership contributed to the dam's failure and the flood. The 3,015 sq. The 45-acre mass held buildings, machinery, hundreds of freight cars, 50 miles of track, bridge sections, boilers, telephone poles, trees, animals, and 500 to 600 humans. They were too late. The capacity of the spillwaywas decreased significantly by the lowering of the dam crest and thereby reducingthe freeboard. The president at the time of the flood was Colonel Elias Unger. Explains that a commission was formed between arizona, california, colorado,nevada, new mexico, utah, and wyoming. . South Fork Dam after failure in 1889. The remains of the South Fork Dam from the Visitor Center area. They added a fish screen onto the spillwaythe structure built to keep water from building up too high and straining the dam. Morrell died four years before the flood he had labored to prevent.[4][5]. For years, the Gilded Ages most powerful industrialists gathered at Lake Conemaugh, an idyllic body of water made possible by Pennsylvanias South Fork Dam. He could cut through the end of the dam, where the pressure was less, so it would give way more slowly and reduce the waters destructive force. Far above Johnstown, PA was the South Fork Dam which was built by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania between 1838 and 1853. South Fork Dam is designed as a rolled earth-filled embankment approximately 1,650 feet long, 90 feet high, with a 30-foot crest. The club was the owner of the South Fork Dam, which failed during an unprecedented period of heavy rains, resulting in the disastrous Johnstown Flood on May 31, 1889. I love creating & composing history articles and lists. The disaster resulted from incessant and unprecedented rainfall. There had been some speculation as to the dam's integrity, and concerns had been raised by the head of the Cambria Iron Works downstream in Johnstown. (Photo credit: Library of Congress / Getty Images). |. Though thedam had been built according to accepted engineering practices, the canal system was obsolete by the time the dam was completed in 1853. Contributions from the United States and abroad totaled over $3,700,000. To truly understand the devastation caused by this flood, we need to understand the construction of the South Fork Dam. The spillway is obstructed with a bridge and fish screen. On May 31, 1889, the South Fork Dam failed catastrophically and 20 million tons of water from Lake Conemaugh burst through and raced 14 miles downstream, causing the Johnstown Flood. (2)Rose, A. High School: South Iredell; Location Information. "The Johnstown Flood", by Robert D. Christie. The roaring water was filled with debris, boulders and whole trees. Soldiers sit on a hill overlooking Johnstown, Pennsylvania after the 1889 flood. But the lake where so much wealth and power gathered was built on a shaky foundation. The museum also displays photography of the construction of Norris Dam, going all the way back to the first photo of the dam in October 1933. A wrecked freight car next to twisted railroad tracks, after the Johnstown, Pennsylvania flood of 1889. Many more failures - in Arizona, Tennessee, Oregon, North Carolina, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia, and elsewhere across the U.S. - occurred around the turn of the century, and some early state . Terrible Living Conditions of Gorbals, Glasgow Slums before the Redevelopment, Toronto in the 1940s: What Toronto looked like During and after the World War II, What Norfolk looked like in the Late 19th Century, Spectacular Historical Photos of Sacramento in the 1880s, Gibraltar in 1980 through the Lens of a Spanish Photographer, Vintage Sensual Maids: 50+ Provocative Photos Of Naughty Flappers From The 1920s. When an unusually strong storm hit the area on May 28, 1889, pounding the area with between six and 10 inches of water in just 24 hours, water levels at the dam began to rise. Emergency morgues and hospitals were set up, and commissaries distributed food and clothing. Johnstown Flood National Memorial "Benjamin Franklin Ruff (1835-1887)", "Johnstown Memorial", National Park Service. After the flood, Andrew Carnegie, one of the club's better-known members, built the town a new library. The dam eventually gave way and the heavy water poured into the valley. The South Fork Dam was built on the artificially created Lake Conemaugh in Pennsylvania, the US between 1838 and 1853. A number of club members built large cottages nearby. 1847-The half-completed South Fork Dam failed for the first time. Notify me of follow-up comments by email. Our mission is a vital part of Texas' overall vision and the state's mission and goals that relate to maintaining the viability of the state's natural resources, health, and economic development. An engineer who saw the situation of dam, immediately rode a horse towards the village of South Fork to warn the . The flood met its first serious resistance at the Pennsylvania Railroads Stone Bridge, which saved the lives of thousands by not breaking. Volunteers search for bodies in the debris piled up against the stone bridge. If so, please share it with your friends and family to help spread the word. PA Under Ruffs ownership the area became the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Clubof which elite members included Andrew Carnegie and Henry Frick. South Fork provides visitors with abundant all-season activities from hunting and fishing to skiing, golf, horseback riding and wildlife viewing. After several days of unprecedented rainfall in the Alleghenies, the dam gave way on May 31, 1889. The resulting flood wave thatcontained 20 million tons ofwater and debris caused 2,209fatalities and became known asthe Johnstown Flood. Completed structure. The dam had a spillway that was unobstructed, allowing for runoff. This was part of a cross-state canal system that was aptly named the Main Line of Public Works. "[14] The South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club Historic District was designated a national historic district listed on the National Register of Historic Places, in 1986. Francis et al. 2 Pennsylvanian engineer William Morris designed the dam, located a "safe . The earth is not puddled and there were several leaks in the dam. The original 918-foot-long ( 280-meter-long) structure stood 72 feet (22 meters) high and was built in 1852. And wasnt the dam being maintained by some of the richest and most powerful men in America? Afterward, the railroad abandoned the dam, and it deteriorated. The outlet works for the dam consisted of a stone-linedculvert with five valves for releasing varying amounts of flow as well as a spillwaycreated by cutting into the rock along the east abutment. Author: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation & U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Association of State Dam Safety Officials Johnstown had been built on a floodplain at the fork of the Little Conemaugh River and Stony Creek. That's when a dam altered by the exclusive club burst, and the unthinkable happened. While some people inJohnstown made the usual preparations for flooding,John Parke, the club engineer who was at theSouth Fork Dam,knew things were more serious. In 1862 a break occurred near the discharge pipes, but little damage resulted because the water level was so low. According to the Johnstown Area Heritage Association, 2,209 people died, almost 400 of them children. Unfortunately, the telegraph lines that would send the warning to Johnstown were down. Even before Folsom Lake Dam was built and the reservoir filled, the north fork of the American River was supplying water to communities, farms and ranches in south Placer and northeast Sacramento counties. Morrell's warnings went unheeded, and his offer to effect repairs, partially at his own expense, was rejected by club president, Benjamin F. Ruff (who died two years prior to the flood). Morrell insisted on inspections of the dam's breastwork both by his own engineers, (including John Fulton) and by those of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Though the dam had been built according to accepted engineering practices, the canal system was obsolete by the time the dam was . There have been a number of fatal dam breaks in the United Statest. In the growing darkness, they watched other buildings being pulled down, not knowing if theirs would last the night. That same year, Pennsylvania called on engineer Sylvester Welch to find a spot for a feeder reservoir and he selected a spot on the South Fork Creek for construction of the South Fork Dam and Western Reservoir. However, according to modern research conducted by, among others, University of Pittsburgh instructor Neil M. Coleman,[7] the report was delayed, subverted, and whitewashed, before being released two years after the disaster. In the past, they . Four square miles of downtown Johnstown was completely destroyed. The failed low level outlet conduits and portions of the conduits' stone masonry outlet were removed but not replaced,leaving the dam without a proper low level outlet works for dewatering the reservoir. The dam as originally built with a higher crest by the State of Pennsylvania would have impounded a greater volume of 1.627 10 7 m 3 below a lake stage of 493.5 m. Many publications report that . Roughly bounded by Fortieth, Main, and Lake Sts., D. W. C Bidwell owner of a mining industry, John Caldwell, Jr. treasurer of the Philadelphia Company, John Weakley Chalfant president of People's National Bank, associated with steel tubing manufacturer Spang, Chalfant and Company, George H. Christy attorney in Pittsburgh, Charles John Clarke founder of Pittsburgh-based transportation company Clarke and Company, father of Louis Clarke, Cyrus Elder (1833-1912); prominent attorney; chief counsel for the, Daniel R. Euwer lumber dealer for Euwer and Brothers, John King Ewing involved with real estate through Ewing and Byers, A. G. Harmes manufacturer of machinery through his Harmes Machinery Depot, John A. Harper assistant cashier of the Bank of Pittsburgh, president of, Howard Hartley manufacturer of leather products and rubber belts through Hartley Brothers, Henry Holdship co-founder of the Art Society of Pittsburgh and the, Americus Vespecius Holmes vice-president of, Durbin Horne president of retail company Joseph Horne and Company, Christopher Curtis Hussey Hussey, Howe and Company, steel manufacturers, Harriet Augusta Byram Hussey wife of C.C. This was the first major disaster relief effort handled by the new American Red Cross, led by Clara Barton. [2] Ruff, while he was not a civil engineer, had a background that included being a railroad tunnel contractor and supervised the repairs to the dam, which did not include a successful resolution of the inability to discharge the water and substantially lower the lake for repair purposes. When the water was "up" in the spring, the lake covered over 400 acres (1.6km2). When South Fork Dam gave way on May 31, 1889, the 20 million tons of water it released devastated the city and took 2,209 lives. During the night the waters had receded, revealing vast heaps of mud and rubble-filled streets where there were still streets up to the third story. In the aftermath, bodies were found as far away as Cincinnati, Ohiomore than 400 miles away. The dam was built of rammed earth and, while initially constructed sturdily and artfully, fell into disrepair throughout its use, eventually failing catastrophically and resulting in the great Johnstown Flood. But, that had been the case every spring for so many years, that it the supposed threat had become something of a standing joke around town. The Navy's New $13 Billion Aircraft Carrier Is Already . Daniel Johnson Morrell, of the Cambria Iron Works of Johnstown, also became a member, ostensibly to monitor the condition of the dam. For whatever reason, at least three warnings sent from South Fork to Johnstown by telegram the day of the disaster went virtually unheeded downstream. . At the time the South Fork Dam breached in 1889 its impoundment held about 1.455 10 7 m 3 of water below a lake surface elevation of 492.56 m . Residents of Pennsylvania are still paying for it through a tax on alcohol. The South Fork Dam was 72 feet (22m) high and 931 feet (284m) long. According to the Association of State Dam Safety Officials (ASDSO), there have been around 1,600 dam failures in the United States since the South Fork disaster, resulting in approximately 3,500 . The South Fork Dam was originally built between 1838-1853 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as part of the canal system to be used as a reservoir for the state's Main Line of Public Works canal basin in Johnstown. Next in line was Woodvale, a town of about 1,000, that the torrent smashed with equal ferocity. Storage capacity is 40,000 acre-feet. Their secret retreat was a place to fish, hunt and consolidate their power. On May 31, the residents were unaware of the danger that steady rain over the course of the previous day had caused. Scouring its way towards Johnstown, the flood picked up several hundred boxcars, a dozen locomotives, more than 100 houses and a growing number of corpses. Henry Clay Frick (1848-1919) A founding member and perhaps one of, if not the most famous, member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club; perhaps second only to Andrew Carnegie. A torrent of water raced downstream, destroying several towns. and looked at similar dam failures and issues with the South Fork dam itself to . The SouthFork Dam, as it became known, experienced a catastrophic failure on May 31,1889 when it was overtoppedduring a large storm event. Former Bouquet seller now making a go with blogging and graphic designing. Why did Frick decide to lower the dam, even though it made it weaker ? A rendering of the scene at the Stone Bridge. The dam was 72 feet (22 m) high and 931 feet (284 m) long. However, the powerful industrialists whose modifications had caused the flood were never held legally accountable. HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate. Credit: NPS/Harpers Ferry Center, Right image B. Court of Common Pleas. (Credit: Library of Congress/Corbis/VCG via Getty Images). The disaster became widely known as the Johnstown Flood, and locally known as the "Great Flood". The South Fork Dam was an earthenwork dam forming Lake Conemaugh ,[1] an artificial body of water near South Fork, Pennsylvania, United States. The warehouse of the Cambria Iron Works Company in the back was severely damaged. Rumors of the dam's potential for harm, and its likelihood of bursting, had been circulating for years, and perhaps this contributed to why they were not taken seriously on that fateful day. The discharge pipes were removed and the lake level was filled up to 70 feet in places. But could it have been prevented? Forest Road 277 over South Fork of the Snake; . (1)Mills, K. (2013). Learn more at erinblakemore.com. These 61 wealthy steel and coal industrialists came from Pittsburgh, and made some . Eighty people died at the bridge, some still in their own homes. Browse 42 SOUTH FORK DAM stock photos and images available, or start a new search to explore more stock photos and images. But afterward, how could he prove that the dam would have gone anyway? However,Benjamin Ruff, thefirst president of the South Fork Club, responded by saying:You and your people are in no danger from our enterprise., Southfork Clubhouse, Johnstown, Pennsylvania, In the end, nothing was done andby and by, most Johnstown residents talked less and less about it. But by far the most famous dam failure, and indeed one of the worst disasters in U.S. history, was the Johnstown flood of 1889 . Many became helplessly entangled in miles of barbed wire from a destroyed wire works. South Fork Dam was an earth- and rock-fill dam located about 8 miles eastof Johnstown, Pennsylvania. But there was more yet to come. Mostly forgotten about by the 1870s-1880s, it was also a menace, over the heads of the people of Johnstown and the Conemaugh Valley. Privacy Policy. 4. Johnstowns Main Street is choked with debris. Switch to the dark mode that's kinder on your eyes at night time. The Johnstown Flood in rare pictures, 1889. Retrieved from the Digital Public Library of America, Last edited on 10 September 2022, at 20:32, U.S. National Register of Historic Places, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, "'It's still controversial': Debate rages over culpability of wealthy club members" by David Hurst. To compound the problem, the club owners and managers had erected fish screens across the mouth of the spillway which was intended to keep water from accumulating to the point of straining the dam; the screens became clogged with debris, restricting the outflow of water.

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